Public Safety Officers
All disabled people have the right to liberty and security of person, equal protection under the law, and freedom from torture and cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment. This page centers disabled people’s expertise to help public safety officers—police, firefighters, EMTs, and other first responders—interact safely and respectfully with disabled people.
Why This Matters
Section titled “Why This Matters”Disabled people are significantly overrepresented in use-of-force incidents and police killings. A 2016 Ruderman Family Foundation white paper estimated that disabled people make up “a third to half” of all people killed by law enforcement — an estimate based on media coverage from 2013–2015, since no official national data tracks disability in police killings (Ruderman Foundation). Research using national survey data has found that more than half of disabled Black Americans are arrested by age 28 — roughly double the rate of their white disabled counterparts (McCauley, American Journal of Public Health, 2017).
These are not inevitable outcomes. They result from officers misinterpreting disability-related behaviors, communication failures, lack of training, and systems that send armed responders to situations better handled by other professionals.
This toolkit addresses both how to do better within current systems and when alternatives to police response are more appropriate.
Recognizing Disability
Section titled “Recognizing Disability”The Challenge
Section titled “The Challenge”Disability is often invisible. Officers encounter people whose behavior seems unusual without knowing why. The same behaviors that indicate disability can be misinterpreted as:
- Intoxication (unsteady gait, slurred speech, confusion)
- Defiance (not responding to commands, not making eye contact)
- Aggression (stimming, sudden movements, agitation)
- Deception (avoiding eye contact, inconsistent statements)
- Threat (reaching for communication devices, not showing hands)
Misinterpretation leads to escalation. Escalation leads to harm.
Behaviors That May Indicate Disability
Section titled “Behaviors That May Indicate Disability”Autism:
- Lack of eye contact
- Repetitive movements (hand flapping, rocking, pacing)
- Unusual speech patterns or echolalia (repeating words)
- Sensitivity to lights, sounds, or touch
- Not responding to name or commands
- Literal interpretation of language
- Difficulty with unexpected situations
Intellectual Disability:
- Slow responses to questions
- Difficulty understanding complex instructions
- Agreeing to everything (to please authority figures)
- Inconsistent answers (may not understand questions)
- Childlike demeanor in adults
- Difficulty with abstract concepts
Psychiatric Disabilities:
- Anxiety, pacing, fidgeting
- Talking to self or responding to internal stimuli
- Paranoia or fearfulness
- Disorganized speech or behavior
- Extreme emotional states
- Delusions or hallucinations
Deaf/Hard of Hearing:
- Not responding to verbal commands
- Speaking unusually loudly or with different cadence
- Pointing to ears
- Hand movements (may be sign language)
- Intense facial expressions (part of ASL)
- Looking at lips rather than eyes
Physical Disabilities:
- Unsteady gait
- Difficulty with fine motor tasks
- Reliance on mobility devices
- Fatigue or need for rest
- Reaching for assistive devices
Critical Rule
Section titled “Critical Rule”When in doubt, assume disability. The consequences of treating a disabled person as threatening are severe. The consequences of treating a non-disabled person with extra patience are minimal.
De-Escalation Principles
Section titled “De-Escalation Principles”Core Approach
Section titled “Core Approach”De-escalation prioritizes safety for everyone through communication and patience rather than force.
Time and distance: Create physical and temporal space. Back off if safe to do so—space reduces escalation.
Calm communication: Use a calm, low voice. Avoid shouting commands.
Simple instructions: One instruction at a time. Allow time for processing.
Reduce stimulation: Turn off sirens, dim lights if possible, reduce number of people.
Listen: Let people talk. Talking de-escalates.
Explain: Tell people what’s happening and why. Uncertainty escalates.
Allow Processing Time
Section titled “Allow Processing Time”Many disabilities affect processing speed. After giving an instruction:
- Wait at least 10 seconds before repeating
- Don’t repeat more loudly—repeat the same way
- Consider whether the instruction was understood
- Try simpler phrasing if needed
Appearing to ignore commands is often inability to process quickly, not refusal.
Communication Strategies
Section titled “Communication Strategies”General Principles
Section titled “General Principles”One person communicates at a time. Multiple officers giving commands is overwhelming.
Use simple, direct language. Avoid idioms, sarcasm, and complex sentences.
Explain what you’re doing before you do it, especially before any physical contact.
Ask about communication needs: “How can I best communicate with you?”
Deaf and Hard of Hearing Individuals
Section titled “Deaf and Hard of Hearing Individuals”Recognition signs:
- Not responding to verbal commands
- Pointing to ears
- Hand movements (may be sign language)
- Looking at your lips
- Speaking in unusual cadence
Communication approaches:
- Get their attention visually (wave, move into field of vision—not from behind)
- Face them when speaking
- Speak clearly at normal volume (shouting doesn’t help)
- Use written communication if available
- Basic gestures can help (pointing, miming)
- Certified interpreters for complex interactions
Legal requirements: ADA requires effective communication. For arrests, interrogations, and complex interactions, qualified interpreters are required.
Critical warnings:
- Hand movements may be sign language, not threats
- Reaching may be for communication cards, not weapons
- Facial expressions are part of ASL—intensity is normal
Non-Speaking Individuals
Section titled “Non-Speaking Individuals”Some people don’t communicate through speech but do communicate:
- AAC devices (tablets, speech-generating devices)
- Communication boards or cards
- Writing
- Sign language
- Gestures
Ask if they have a way to communicate. Wait for device-generated responses—they take time. Don’t take away communication devices.
People with Intellectual Disabilities
Section titled “People with Intellectual Disabilities”Communication strategies:
- Simple, concrete language
- Short sentences, one idea at a time
- Allow extra time for responses
- Don’t interpret slow responses as deception
- Repeat and rephrase if needed
- Confirm understanding: “Can you tell me what I just said?”
Interview cautions:
- May agree with authority figures to please them (false confessions risk)
- May not understand rights warnings
- May provide inconsistent information without intending to deceive
- May confuse timing, sequences, or details
- May not understand consequences of statements
Autistic Individuals
Section titled “Autistic Individuals”Communication strategies:
- Be direct and literal—say exactly what you mean
- Avoid idioms, sarcasm, and implied meanings
- Give clear, concrete instructions
- Don’t require eye contact
- Allow processing time (10+ seconds)
- One person communicate at a time
Don’t misinterpret:
- Lack of eye contact as guilt or deception
- Stimming as drug-related behavior
- Flat affect as lack of cooperation
- Literal answers as evasiveness
- Difficulty with small talk as rudeness
Situations by Disability Type
Section titled “Situations by Disability Type”Autism
Section titled “Autism”Recognition: Lack of eye contact, stimming (hand flapping, rocking), sensitivity to sensory stimuli, not responding to name, literal language.
De-escalation:
- Reduce sensory input (lights, sirens, noise)
- Allow one person to communicate
- Use simple, direct language
- Allow stimming unless it’s truly dangerous
- Give clear, concrete instructions
- Don’t touch unexpectedly
- Allow processing time
What calms: Routine, predictability, familiar objects, reducing stimulation. Ask caregivers if present.
What escalates: Sensory overload, unpredictability, touching, loud commands, physical restraint.
Psychiatric Disabilities (Mental Health Crisis)
Section titled “Psychiatric Disabilities (Mental Health Crisis)”Recognition: Extreme emotional states, disorganized behavior or speech, responding to internal stimuli, paranoia, anxiety.
De-escalation:
- Create calm environment
- Speak quietly and slowly
- Don’t argue with delusions—redirect
- Acknowledge their experience
- Ask what helps
- Give choices when possible
- Avoid sudden movements
Critical: High anxiety impairs cognitive function. Simplify communication. Be patient. Recognize that agitation is a symptom, not a threat.
Consider alternatives: Is this a mental health crisis better served by mental health professionals than police? (See section on alternatives below.)
Intellectual Disabilities
Section titled “Intellectual Disabilities”Recognition: Concrete thinking, slow processing, difficulty with abstract concepts, may appear younger than actual age.
De-escalation:
- Simple language, short sentences
- One instruction at a time
- Allow processing time
- Be patient with repeated questions
- Don’t interpret confusion as defiance
Interview cautions: High risk of false compliance and false confessions. People may say what they think you want to hear. May not understand Miranda rights.
Physical/Mobility Disabilities
Section titled “Physical/Mobility Disabilities”Recognition: Use of wheelchair, walker, cane, prosthetics; unsteady gait; difficulty with fine motor tasks.
Considerations:
- Don’t separate people from mobility devices
- Provide accessible environments for interviews
- Seated individuals may not be able to comply with certain commands
- Fatigue may be a factor
- Don’t assume cognitive impairment from physical disability
Avoiding Use of Force
Section titled “Avoiding Use of Force”The Stakes
Section titled “The Stakes”Restraint and force used on disabled people has resulted in deaths:
Ethan Saylor (2013): A 26-year-old man with Down syndrome was killed by off-duty deputies who restrained him for “non-compliance” at a movie theater. He died of asphyxiation while crying “mommy.” His aide had warned officers he would not react well to touch and could be calmed with patience.
Elijah McClain (2019): A 23-year-old autistic Black man was stopped while walking home, placed in a carotid hold, and injected with ketamine. He died days later.
These deaths were preventable with different approaches.
Alternatives to Physical Intervention
Section titled “Alternatives to Physical Intervention”Time: If the situation is safe, wait. Many crises de-escalate with time.
Distance: Back off. Crowding escalates; space calms.
Verbal de-escalation: Keep talking. Let the person talk. Validate feelings.
Information from others: Ask family members, caregivers, group home staff what helps this individual.
Sensory modifications: Turn off sirens, reduce lights, move to quieter area.
Redirection: If you know the person’s interests, redirect conversation there.
Wait for specialized resources: CIT-trained officers, mobile crisis teams, behavioral health responders.
When Restraint Is Used
Section titled “When Restraint Is Used”If restraint is unavoidable:
- Use minimum force necessary
- Monitor breathing continuously—people with certain disabilities are at higher risk of positional asphyxia
- Avoid prone positioning when possible
- Be aware that some disabilities affect ability to regulate body temperature, breathing, or heart rate under stress
- Get medical evaluation afterward
Service Animals
Section titled “Service Animals”Legal Framework
Section titled “Legal Framework”Service animals must be allowed everywhere the public goes—including crime scenes, ambulances, emergency vehicles, and holding facilities where the handler is present.
Identification
Section titled “Identification”Only two questions are permitted:
- Is this a service animal required because of a disability?
- What task has the animal been trained to perform?
You cannot:
- Require documentation
- Require vests or identification
- Ask about the person’s disability
- Require demonstration of tasks
During Encounters
Section titled “During Encounters”Never separate handlers from service animals except for the handler’s safety (e.g., handler being transported for emergency medical care and animal can’t safely accompany).
Separation “adversely impacts overall ability of individual to use services” and can “impair or destroy” the handler-animal relationship.
If the animal must be separated, ensure the animal is cared for and reunited as soon as possible.
Medical Emergencies
Section titled “Medical Emergencies”Recognizing Medical vs. Behavioral
Section titled “Recognizing Medical vs. Behavioral”What looks like intoxication or psychiatric crisis may be:
- Diabetic emergency
- Seizure or post-ictal state
- Stroke
- Head injury
- Medication reaction
- Medical device malfunction
Look for: Medical alert jewelry, medical devices, medication bottles.
Ask: “Do you have a medical condition I should know about?”
Individuals with Medical Equipment
Section titled “Individuals with Medical Equipment”Power wheelchair batteries can die, stranding people.
Insulin pumps and other devices are critical medical equipment.
Oxygen must be maintained.
Ventilators are life support—never disconnect.
Feeding tubes require supplies.
Don’t take away, disconnect, or interfere with medical equipment.
Crisis Intervention Training
Section titled “Crisis Intervention Training”The Memphis Model
Section titled “The Memphis Model”Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) training is a 40-hour program teaching officers to respond to mental health crises. Core elements:
- Understanding mental illness and disability
- De-escalation techniques
- Local mental health resources
- Role-playing scenarios
- Involvement of people with lived experience as trainers
Memphis reported significant reductions in officer injuries during mental health calls after implementing CIT.
Limitations
Section titled “Limitations”Research on CIT effectiveness is mixed. Training alone is insufficient without:
- Systemic changes in policies and culture
- Resources for diversion and referral
- Support from leadership
- Ongoing training and reinforcement
- Alternatives to police response
Beyond Mental Health
Section titled “Beyond Mental Health”The IACP’s updated Crisis Response and Intervention Training (CRIT) explicitly includes intellectual and developmental disabilities, not just mental illness.
Alternatives to Police Response
Section titled “Alternatives to Police Response”Why This Matters
Section titled “Why This Matters”Disability advocates argue that many calls involving disabled people should never involve armed police response in the first place. Mental health crises, autism-related behaviors, and communication breakdowns don’t require law enforcement—they require appropriate professional response.
Models
Section titled “Models”CAHOOTS (Eugene, OR): Operating since 1989, sends unarmed pairs (EMT + crisis worker) to crisis calls. Handles a significant portion of calls that would otherwise go to police.
STAR (Denver, CO): Launched 2020, deploys mental health clinician + paramedic teams. No police involvement in mental health calls they handle.
988 Suicide and Crisis Lifeline: The national crisis line can deploy mobile crisis teams in many areas.
Embedded clinicians: Some departments pair clinicians with officers for mental health-related calls.
When to Refer or Co-Respond
Section titled “When to Refer or Co-Respond”Consider whether police are the right responders:
- Person in mental health crisis without weapons or violence
- Welfare checks on people with known disabilities
- Noise complaints involving autistic individuals
- “Suspicious behavior” that may be disability-related
If response is necessary, consider:
- CIT-trained officers
- Co-response with mental health professionals
- Handoff to mental health services rather than arrest
Legal Framework
Section titled “Legal Framework”ADA and Section 504
Section titled “ADA and Section 504”Police departments must:
- Make reasonable modifications for people with disabilities
- Provide effective communication (interpreters, accessible formats)
- Not discriminate based on disability
Court Decisions
Section titled “Court Decisions”City and County of San Francisco v. Sheehan (2015): While the Court didn’t clearly resolve ADA application to arrests, it indicated Title II may apply to how arrests are made.
Numerous settlements have required departments to implement disability training, modify policies, and provide communication access.
Interview and Interrogation
Section titled “Interview and Interrogation”Miranda warnings may not be understood by people with intellectual disabilities. Consider:
- Simplified explanations
- Checking comprehension
- Presence of appropriate adult
- Video recording for later review
False confessions are more likely from people with intellectual disabilities who want to please authority figures.
Resources
Section titled “Resources”Disability-Led Organizations
Section titled “Disability-Led Organizations”HEARD (Helping Educate to Advance the Rights of Deaf Communities): Resources on deaf individuals and the legal system. behearddc.org
CommunicationFIRST: Advocacy for people with speech disabilities. communicationfirst.org
Autistic Self Advocacy Network: Resources on autism and law enforcement. autisticadvocacy.org
Training Resources
Section titled “Training Resources”CIT International: Crisis Intervention Team resources and training. citinternational.org
IACP CRIT Toolkit: Law enforcement training on disability response. informedpoliceresponses.com
DOJ ADA guidance: Law enforcement and disability rights information.
Alternatives to Policing
Section titled “Alternatives to Policing”988 Suicide and Crisis Lifeline: Call or text 988
Local mobile crisis teams: Check your jurisdiction for available services
CAHOOTS model information: Available for departments considering alternatives
Quick Reference: Do This, Not That
Section titled “Quick Reference: Do This, Not That”| Instead of… | Try… |
|---|---|
| Shouting commands | Speaking calmly, simply |
| Demanding eye contact | Allowing natural behavior |
| Touching without warning | Explaining before any contact |
| Crowding the person | Creating space |
| Repeating commands louder | Waiting, then rephrasing |
| Interpreting slow response as defiance | Allowing processing time |
| Separating person from service animal | Keeping them together |
| Taking communication device | Allowing communication |
| Immediate physical intervention | De-escalation first |
| One-size-fits-all response | Adapting to individual |
Key Principles Summary
Section titled “Key Principles Summary”-
Assume disability when behavior seems unusual. The safest assumption protects everyone.
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Time and space de-escalate. If safe, wait and create distance.
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Simple, direct communication. One officer, one instruction at a time.
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Allow processing time. What looks like defiance may be slow processing.
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Reduce sensory input. Turn off sirens, dim lights, move to calmer spaces.
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Never separate people from service animals, mobility devices, or communication tools.
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Ask caregivers and family if present—they know what helps.
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Consider whether police are the right responders. Sometimes mental health professionals are more appropriate.
For Firefighters and EMTs
Section titled “For Firefighters and EMTs”Many principles above apply. Additional considerations:
Scene safety: People with disabilities may not be able to evacuate themselves.
Communication: Ask about communication needs early.
Medical history: Ask about disabilities that affect treatment (seizure disorders, medication interactions, etc.).
Equipment: Don’t separate people from wheelchairs, AAC devices, or medical equipment.
Service animals: Keep with handlers when possible; ensure care if separation required.
Transport: Accessible transport may be needed. Power wheelchairs may not fit in standard ambulances—have plans.
Sensory considerations: Reduce sirens and lights when possible. Explain what’s happening.
Related Pages
Section titled “Related Pages”- Emergency Planners
- Crisis Resources
- Abuse, Neglect, and Exploitation
- Mental Health
- Incarceration and Criminalization
This page centers disabled people’s expertise and is informed by disabled-led organizing globally. For questions or to suggest additions, see How to Contribute.
Contribute to This Page
Section titled “Contribute to This Page”Have lived experience or expertise that could strengthen this page? We especially welcome perspectives on models not well represented here, including those from the Global South and Indigenous communities.
This page centers disabled people’s expertise and is informed by disabled-led organizing globally. For questions or to suggest additions, see How to Contribute.